China’s Korea Policy in the Era of Reform, 1978-1992, Conclusion and Bibliography
Conclusion
China’s decision to pursue a two-Koreas policy was based chiefly on domestic factors. The death of Mao Zedong led to the rise of Deng Xiaoping and his clique who abandoned rigid doctrinism and emphasised market-oriented reforms. The new leadership considered South Korea as a model of economic development and a source of capital and technology and thus economic relations between the two countries began in the late 1970s. South Korea’s open-door policy also facilitated the relations. As the economic relations had been closer, China’s began to recognise South Korea’s governmental authority. However, due to security and political reasons, it could not establish diplomatic ties with South Korea in the 1980s.
The Sino-Soviet conflict and the Tiananmen incident retarded the Sino-South Korean normalisation. China feared that the normalisation with South Korea during the Sino-Soviet conflict might antagonise Kim Il Sung and bring North Korea into the Soviet orbit. Therefore, it had to maintain close ties with Pyongyang by reaffirming China’s North Korean security commitment, providing economic and military aids, and approving Kim Il Sung’s designation of his successor. In addition, realising that economic reform could not be achieved without a peaceful environment, China encouraged North Korea to open a dialogue with the United States. Although the rift with the Soviets ended in the late 1980s, the Tiananmen incident, followed by the end of the Cold War, retarded the prospect of normalisation. The fear of the United States’ peaceful evolution policy and the crisis of Communist legitimacy after the collapse of the Soviet bloc strengthened the Sino-North Korean relations. Ironically, the end of the Cold War itself led to the reorientation of Chinese foreign policy that favoured the normalisation with South Korea.
China’s negative view toward the emergence of the U.S.-dominated unipolar world after the Cold War was responsible for the strengthening of its regional base by improving relations with its Asian neighbours. By the beginning of the 1990s, therefore, China decided to normalise its relations with South Korea. The de-escalation of inter-Korean tensions, Deng Xiaoping’s southern tour, Taiwan’s diplomacy, and the Sino-U.S. trade disputes further precipitated the normalisation. However, China’s diplomacy toward Pyongyang during the normalisation shows that the two-Koreas policy tried not to alienate North Korea and that Pyongyang was still important to China.
In the post-normalisation era, China has played a significant role in Korean affairs. As the only major power, apart from Russia, which has diplomatic ties with both Pyongyang and Seoul, China’s cooperation in dealing with the Korean problem is indispensable, as seen in the 1993/1994 nuclear crisis, the 1997/1998 four-party talks, the 2000 Korean summit, and the present 2002/2003 nuclear crisis. Given the two Koreas’ strategic and economic importance for China, it is likely that China would have its say in the future Korean affairs, perhaps even after the Korean reunification.
Bibliography
Ahn, Byung-joon. “South Korea and the Communist Countries.” Asian Survey 20 (November 1980): 1098-1107.
Buzo, Adrian. The Guerilla Dynasty: Politics and Leadership in North Korea. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1999.
Chang, Parris H. “China’s East Asian Policy during the Deng Era.” In Peace and Cooperation in Northeast Asia, ed. Dalchoong Kim, 39-58. Seoul: Institute of East and West Studies, Yonsei University, 1990.
Chang, Parris H. “Beijing’s Policy toward Korea and PRC-ROK Normalization of Relations.” In The Changing Order in Northeast Asia and the Korean Peninsula, eds. Manwoo Lee and Richard W. Mansbach, 155-172. Seoul: Institute for Far Eastern Studies, Kyungnam University, 1993.
Cheung, Peter T.Y. and James T.H. Tang. “The External Relations of China’s Provinces.” In The Making of Chinese Foreign and Security Policy in the Era of Reform, ed. David M. Lampton, 91-120. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2001.
Chu Sung-po. “Peking’s Relations with South and North Korea in the 1980s.” Issues & Studies 22 (November 1986): 67-79.
Chung, Chong Wook. “China’s Role in Two-Korea Relations in the 1980s.” Journal Northeast Asian Studies 5 (Fall 1986): 52-66.
Chung, Jae-Ho. “South Korea-China Economic Relations: The Current Situation and Its Implications.” Asian Survey 28 (October 1988): 1031-1048.
Chung, Jae Ho. “Sino-South Korean Economic Cooperation: An Analysis of Domestic and Foreign Entanglements.” Journal of Northeast Asian Studies 9 (Summer 1990): 59-79, [journal on-line]; Available from http://weblinks2.epnet.com/delivery.asp?tb=1&_ug=dbs+0+1n+en-us+sid+3087E9E8-D6C...; Accessed 25 July 2003.
Gu, Weiqun. “China’s ‘Open-Door’ Policy and the Korean Peninsula.” In Peace and Cooperation in Northeast Asia, ed. Dalchoong Kim, 109-120. Seoul: Institute of East and West Studies, Yonsei University, 1990.
Hao Yufan. “China and the Korean Peninsula: A Chinese View.” Asian Survey 27 (August 1987): 862-884.
Hong Liu. “The Sino-South Korean Normalization: A Triangular Explanation.” Asian Survey 33 (November 1993): 1083-1094.
Hsu, Immanuel C.Y. The Rise of Modern China. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.
Hsu, Immanuel C.Y. The Rise of Modern China. 6th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Huang Hua. “China’s Position on Current World Issues.” Beijing Review, 11 October 1982, 14-17.
Jia Hao and Zhuang Qubing. “China’s Policy toward the Korean Peninsula.” Asian Survey 32 (December 1992): 1137-1156.
Kim, Hakjoon. Korea’s Relations with Her Neighbors in a Changing World. Seoul: Hollym International Corp., 1993.
Kim, Ilpyong. “China and the Two Koreas in the Post-Seoul Olympics Era.” Korea Observer 14 (Autumn 1988): 267-283.
Kim, Samuel S. “The Making of China’s Korea Policy in the Era of Reform.” In The Making of Chinese Foreign and Security Policy in the Era of Reform, ed. David M. Lampton, 371-408. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2001.
Lee Chae-Jin. “The Role of China in the Korean Unification Process.” Asian Perspective 10 (Spring-Summer 1986): 96-112.
Lee, Chae-Jin. “China’s Pragmatic Policy Orientation and Its Implications for Korean Unification” In Perspectives on The Peaceful Reunification of Korea, eds. Hong Nack Kim, Byung Chun Minn, and Yong Soon Yim, 1-27. Seoul: Institute of Korean Studies, 1988.
Lee, Chae-Jin. China and Korea: dynamic relations. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1996.
Lee, Hong Yung. “Future Dynamics in Sino-Korea Relations.” Journal of Northeast Asian Studies 9 (Fall 1990): 34-49, [journal on-line]; Available from http://weblinks1.epnet.com/delivery.asp?tb=0&_ug=dbs+0+ln+en-us+sid+...; Accessed 1 April 2003.
Lee, Hong Yung. “China and the Two Koreas: New Emerging Triangle” In Korea and the World: Beyond the Cold War, ed. Young Whan Kihl, 97-110. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1994.
Levin, Norman D. “Evolving Chinese and Soviet Policies toward the Korean Peninsula.” In Chinese Defense and Foreign Policy, ed. June Teufel Dreyer (second printing), 187-213. New York: Paragon House, 1988.
Nathan, Andrew J. and Robert S. Ross. The Great Wall and the Empty Fortress: China’s Search for Security. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1997.
Oberdorfer, Don. The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History. New York: Basic Books, 1997.
Ong, Russell. China’s Security Interests in the Post-Cold War Era. London: Curzon, 2002.
“Premier Zhao Ziyang Visits Korea.” Beijing Review, 4 January 1982, 5.
Sanford, Dan C. South Korea and the Socialist Countries: The Politics of Trade. London: Macmillan, 1990.
Shambaugh, David. “Peking’s Foreign Policy Conundrum Since Tienanmen: Peaceful coexistence vs. Peaceful evolution.” Issues & Studies 28 (November 1992): 65-85.
Suettinger, Robert L. Beyond Tiananmen: The Politics of U.S.-China Relations 1989-2000. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2003.
Woo, Seongji. “Adversarial Engagement and Alliance Relations: Triangular Politics on the Korean Peninsula, 1988-1994.” Issues & Studies 37 (March/April 2001): 106-146.
Yahuda, Michael B. The International Politics of Asia-Pacific, 1945-1995. London: Routledge, 1996.
Yi, Xiaoxiong. “China’s Korea Policy: From “One Korea” to “Two Koreas.” Asian Affairs: An American Review no.2 (1995): 119-140.
Zhang, Wei-Wei. Ideology and Economic Reform under Deng Xiaoping, 1978-1993. London: Kegan Paul International, 1996.
Zhang Xiaoming. “The Korean Peninsula and China’s National Security: Past, Present and Future.” Asian Perspective no.3 (1998): 259-272.
Conclusion
China’s decision to pursue a two-Koreas policy was based chiefly on domestic factors. The death of Mao Zedong led to the rise of Deng Xiaoping and his clique who abandoned rigid doctrinism and emphasised market-oriented reforms. The new leadership considered South Korea as a model of economic development and a source of capital and technology and thus economic relations between the two countries began in the late 1970s. South Korea’s open-door policy also facilitated the relations. As the economic relations had been closer, China’s began to recognise South Korea’s governmental authority. However, due to security and political reasons, it could not establish diplomatic ties with South Korea in the 1980s.
The Sino-Soviet conflict and the Tiananmen incident retarded the Sino-South Korean normalisation. China feared that the normalisation with South Korea during the Sino-Soviet conflict might antagonise Kim Il Sung and bring North Korea into the Soviet orbit. Therefore, it had to maintain close ties with Pyongyang by reaffirming China’s North Korean security commitment, providing economic and military aids, and approving Kim Il Sung’s designation of his successor. In addition, realising that economic reform could not be achieved without a peaceful environment, China encouraged North Korea to open a dialogue with the United States. Although the rift with the Soviets ended in the late 1980s, the Tiananmen incident, followed by the end of the Cold War, retarded the prospect of normalisation. The fear of the United States’ peaceful evolution policy and the crisis of Communist legitimacy after the collapse of the Soviet bloc strengthened the Sino-North Korean relations. Ironically, the end of the Cold War itself led to the reorientation of Chinese foreign policy that favoured the normalisation with South Korea.
China’s negative view toward the emergence of the U.S.-dominated unipolar world after the Cold War was responsible for the strengthening of its regional base by improving relations with its Asian neighbours. By the beginning of the 1990s, therefore, China decided to normalise its relations with South Korea. The de-escalation of inter-Korean tensions, Deng Xiaoping’s southern tour, Taiwan’s diplomacy, and the Sino-U.S. trade disputes further precipitated the normalisation. However, China’s diplomacy toward Pyongyang during the normalisation shows that the two-Koreas policy tried not to alienate North Korea and that Pyongyang was still important to China.
In the post-normalisation era, China has played a significant role in Korean affairs. As the only major power, apart from Russia, which has diplomatic ties with both Pyongyang and Seoul, China’s cooperation in dealing with the Korean problem is indispensable, as seen in the 1993/1994 nuclear crisis, the 1997/1998 four-party talks, the 2000 Korean summit, and the present 2002/2003 nuclear crisis. Given the two Koreas’ strategic and economic importance for China, it is likely that China would have its say in the future Korean affairs, perhaps even after the Korean reunification.
Bibliography
Ahn, Byung-joon. “South Korea and the Communist Countries.” Asian Survey 20 (November 1980): 1098-1107.
Buzo, Adrian. The Guerilla Dynasty: Politics and Leadership in North Korea. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1999.
Chang, Parris H. “China’s East Asian Policy during the Deng Era.” In Peace and Cooperation in Northeast Asia, ed. Dalchoong Kim, 39-58. Seoul: Institute of East and West Studies, Yonsei University, 1990.
Chang, Parris H. “Beijing’s Policy toward Korea and PRC-ROK Normalization of Relations.” In The Changing Order in Northeast Asia and the Korean Peninsula, eds. Manwoo Lee and Richard W. Mansbach, 155-172. Seoul: Institute for Far Eastern Studies, Kyungnam University, 1993.
Cheung, Peter T.Y. and James T.H. Tang. “The External Relations of China’s Provinces.” In The Making of Chinese Foreign and Security Policy in the Era of Reform, ed. David M. Lampton, 91-120. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2001.
Chu Sung-po. “Peking’s Relations with South and North Korea in the 1980s.” Issues & Studies 22 (November 1986): 67-79.
Chung, Chong Wook. “China’s Role in Two-Korea Relations in the 1980s.” Journal Northeast Asian Studies 5 (Fall 1986): 52-66.
Chung, Jae-Ho. “South Korea-China Economic Relations: The Current Situation and Its Implications.” Asian Survey 28 (October 1988): 1031-1048.
Chung, Jae Ho. “Sino-South Korean Economic Cooperation: An Analysis of Domestic and Foreign Entanglements.” Journal of Northeast Asian Studies 9 (Summer 1990): 59-79, [journal on-line]; Available from http://weblinks2.epnet.com/delivery.asp?tb=1&_ug=dbs+0+1n+en-us+sid+3087E9E8-D6C...; Accessed 25 July 2003.
Gu, Weiqun. “China’s ‘Open-Door’ Policy and the Korean Peninsula.” In Peace and Cooperation in Northeast Asia, ed. Dalchoong Kim, 109-120. Seoul: Institute of East and West Studies, Yonsei University, 1990.
Hao Yufan. “China and the Korean Peninsula: A Chinese View.” Asian Survey 27 (August 1987): 862-884.
Hong Liu. “The Sino-South Korean Normalization: A Triangular Explanation.” Asian Survey 33 (November 1993): 1083-1094.
Hsu, Immanuel C.Y. The Rise of Modern China. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.
Hsu, Immanuel C.Y. The Rise of Modern China. 6th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Huang Hua. “China’s Position on Current World Issues.” Beijing Review, 11 October 1982, 14-17.
Jia Hao and Zhuang Qubing. “China’s Policy toward the Korean Peninsula.” Asian Survey 32 (December 1992): 1137-1156.
Kim, Hakjoon. Korea’s Relations with Her Neighbors in a Changing World. Seoul: Hollym International Corp., 1993.
Kim, Ilpyong. “China and the Two Koreas in the Post-Seoul Olympics Era.” Korea Observer 14 (Autumn 1988): 267-283.
Kim, Samuel S. “The Making of China’s Korea Policy in the Era of Reform.” In The Making of Chinese Foreign and Security Policy in the Era of Reform, ed. David M. Lampton, 371-408. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2001.
Lee Chae-Jin. “The Role of China in the Korean Unification Process.” Asian Perspective 10 (Spring-Summer 1986): 96-112.
Lee, Chae-Jin. “China’s Pragmatic Policy Orientation and Its Implications for Korean Unification” In Perspectives on The Peaceful Reunification of Korea, eds. Hong Nack Kim, Byung Chun Minn, and Yong Soon Yim, 1-27. Seoul: Institute of Korean Studies, 1988.
Lee, Chae-Jin. China and Korea: dynamic relations. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1996.
Lee, Hong Yung. “Future Dynamics in Sino-Korea Relations.” Journal of Northeast Asian Studies 9 (Fall 1990): 34-49, [journal on-line]; Available from http://weblinks1.epnet.com/delivery.asp?tb=0&_ug=dbs+0+ln+en-us+sid+...; Accessed 1 April 2003.
Lee, Hong Yung. “China and the Two Koreas: New Emerging Triangle” In Korea and the World: Beyond the Cold War, ed. Young Whan Kihl, 97-110. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1994.
Levin, Norman D. “Evolving Chinese and Soviet Policies toward the Korean Peninsula.” In Chinese Defense and Foreign Policy, ed. June Teufel Dreyer (second printing), 187-213. New York: Paragon House, 1988.
Nathan, Andrew J. and Robert S. Ross. The Great Wall and the Empty Fortress: China’s Search for Security. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1997.
Oberdorfer, Don. The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History. New York: Basic Books, 1997.
Ong, Russell. China’s Security Interests in the Post-Cold War Era. London: Curzon, 2002.
“Premier Zhao Ziyang Visits Korea.” Beijing Review, 4 January 1982, 5.
Sanford, Dan C. South Korea and the Socialist Countries: The Politics of Trade. London: Macmillan, 1990.
Shambaugh, David. “Peking’s Foreign Policy Conundrum Since Tienanmen: Peaceful coexistence vs. Peaceful evolution.” Issues & Studies 28 (November 1992): 65-85.
Suettinger, Robert L. Beyond Tiananmen: The Politics of U.S.-China Relations 1989-2000. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2003.
Woo, Seongji. “Adversarial Engagement and Alliance Relations: Triangular Politics on the Korean Peninsula, 1988-1994.” Issues & Studies 37 (March/April 2001): 106-146.
Yahuda, Michael B. The International Politics of Asia-Pacific, 1945-1995. London: Routledge, 1996.
Yi, Xiaoxiong. “China’s Korea Policy: From “One Korea” to “Two Koreas.” Asian Affairs: An American Review no.2 (1995): 119-140.
Zhang, Wei-Wei. Ideology and Economic Reform under Deng Xiaoping, 1978-1993. London: Kegan Paul International, 1996.
Zhang Xiaoming. “The Korean Peninsula and China’s National Security: Past, Present and Future.” Asian Perspective no.3 (1998): 259-272.
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